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Practitioner Information

Overview:
Practitioners implementing Safe Routes to School programs, or other active travel promotion programs, have a large scope of issues to address.

This section is a collection of research that evaluates current Safe Routes to School programs and identifies issues to consider when implementing new programs. Findings from these studies can provide insight into the cost-effectiveness of programs, impact of school siting, and how gender and socio-demographic factors can influence active travel to school.

Also included in this section is academic literature reviewing legislative policies that can provide practitioners with information regarding potential funding opportunities and policy trends that influence active transport initiatives. Many of the articles in this section directly reference Safe Routes to School programs.

Research Highlights:
• One study reports that the national Safe Routes to School program has the potential to positively influence individuals, communities, and the environment regardless of race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status by providing funds to address some of the barriers and improve the ability of students to safely walk and bicycle to school (Martin, et al., 2008).

• The findings of an analysis of walking and biking to school among low-income and minority youth in the United States has significant implications, reporting that Safe Routes to School programs have the potential to strongly benefit minority and low-income students, especially because many of those students are more likely to live near the school they attend (McDonald, 2008).

• The odds of walking and bicycling to school are 40% lower in girls than in boys (McMillan, et al., 2006).

• Results show that children who pass completed Safe Routes to School projects are more likely to show increases in walking or bicycle travel than are children who do not pass by projects (15% vs. 4%), supporting the effectiveness of Safe Routes to School construction projects (Boarnet, et al., 2005).

• A review of the success of the Safe Routes to School program in Marin County reports a 64% increase in the number of children walking to school, a 114% increase in the number of students biking, and a 91% increase in the number of students carpooling (Staunton, et al., 2003).

Academic Research Articles and Findings:

“Validity of Instruments to Assess Students’ Travel and Pedestrian Behaviors” (2010)
• This study validated the SRTS school travel survey and a pedestrian safety behavior checklist
     o The school travel survey is a written survey completed by both parents and students to measure how students traveled to school on that given day. 
     o The pedestrian safety behavior checklist assesses if a pedestrian is following safety elements including: crossed at a corner or crosswalk, crossed with an adult or safety patrol, stopped at the curb, looked left-right-left, kept looking while crossing, walked and did not run across the street, and followed the traffic signal (if present).
• The validation of these instruments has significant implications on the ability to assess SRTS programs.

Mendoza, Jason A., Watson, Kathy, Baranowski, Tom, Nicklas, Theresa A., Uscanga, Doris K., and Hanfling, Marcus J. “Validity of Instruments to Assess Students’ Travel and Pedestrian Safety.” BMC Public Health. 10.257 (2010).

“The Association Between Community Physical Activity Settings and Youth Physical Activity, Obesity and Body Mass Index” (2010) 
• This study examines the association between the level of physical activity (PA), friendliness of the built environment and adolescent physical activity and body mass index using a national sample of youth and data collected from the communities where they reside.
• Increased levels of area deprivation were associated with decreased physical activity and higher weight.
• A greater number of commercial physical activity facilities was associated with increased physical activity.
• More compact communities were associated with lower weight and less sports participation.
• Researchers suggest that it is important to explore these associations to help guide future development patterns and land use policies to create more active neighborhoods.

Slater, Sandy J., Ewing, Reid, Powell, Lisa M., Chaloupka, Frank J., Johnston, Lloyd D., and O’Malley, Patrick M. “The Association Between Community Physical Activity Settings and Youth Physical Activity, Obesity, and Body Mass Index. Journal of Adolescent Health. (2010): 1-8.

“A Qualitative GIS Approach to Mapping Urban Neighborhoods with Children to Promote Physical Activity and Child-Friendly Community Planning” (2010)
• In this study, researchers stress the importance in considering the role of neighborhoods in supporting children’s physical activity and healthy development, especially in low-income communities where obesity levels among children are higher than for their middle-income counterparts.
• This study is a participatory and qualitative GIS approach to mapping children’s own perceptions and use of their neighborhood for physical activity among ten and eleven year-olds growing up in a diverse low-income community in Denver, CO.
• Girls walk shorter distances to and use different types of community spaces for play and recreation from boys, some of which is explained by the differing environmental-socialization approaches employed by parents and caregivers.
• Children’s perceptions of risk align spatially with features of the built environment, but do not correlate with reported crime.
• Results illustrate the utility of qualitative spatial analysis to understand relationships between children’s perception, the built environment, and social factors that shape children’s active transport, leisure, and recreation in their neighborhood.
• Children’s local knowledge should be valued and solicited in community-level health and planning interventions to promote physical activity.

Wridt, Pamela. “A Qualitative GIS Approach to Mapping Urban Neighborhoods with Children to Promote Physical Activity and Child-Friendly Community Planning.” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design. 37.2 (2010): 129-147.

“School Siting: Contested Visions of the Community School” (2010)
• In this study, McDonald traces the evolution of school siting standards, explains the factors currently influencing school facility location decisions, and identifies what local and regional planners could contribute to school siting decisions.
• Smart growth proponents advocate community schools that are small and intimately linked to neighborhoods
• School facility planners tent to expect community schools to meet the needs of entire localities.
• McDonald recommends communities consider tradeoffs associated with different schools sizes including:
    o Walking distance for students
    o Potential for sports fields
    o School design
    o Connections to neighborhoods
• McDonald also recommends that state school construction and siting policies support flexibility for localities and that local and regional planners should work with school facility planners to conduct exercises and charettes to help each community determine how to realize its own vision of community schools.

McDonald, Noreen. “School Siting: Contested Visions of the Community School.” Journal of the American Planning Association. 76.2 (2010).

“The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance” (2010)
• Student physical activity may help improve academic performance including academic achievement (e.g., grades, standardized test scores); academic behavior (e.g., on-task behavior, attendance); and factors that can positively influence academic achievement (e.g. concentration, attention, improved classroom behavior).
• This report is a literature review that examines the existing research on the relationship between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance. It spans 23 years of research and includes 50 studies.
• The majority of the studies in this review report that physical activity was positively related to academic performance.
• Adding time during the school day for physical activity does not appear to take away from academic performance.
• Schools should continue to offer and/or increase opportunities for student physical activity.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The Association between School-based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2010.

“Aerobic Fitness and Mode of Travel to School in English Schoolchildren” (2010)
• This purpose of this study was to determine whether a positive association exists between active travel and aerobic fitness in English schoolchildren.
• Researchers collected data on mass and structure, BMI, and aerobic fitness (through 20-m shuttle run) on participants, school children ages 10-15.9 years old.
• Mode of travel to school and physical activity was assessed by a questionnaire.
• Results indicate that walking was the most common travel mode to school (50%), and cycling was the least frequent (8%).
• Walkers and cyclists were significantly fitter than passive transport users.
• No association was observed between travel mode and BMI
• Researchers suggest that this study supports existing literature that suggests that those who walk and cycle to school may be at a reduced risk for developing chronic diseases in adulthood.

Voss, Christine and Sandercock, Gavin. “Aerobic Fitness and Mode of Travel to School in English Schoolchildren.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 42.2 (2010): 281-287.

“State School Nutrition and Physical Activity Policy Environments and Youth Obesity” (2010) 
• Using 2006 School Health Policies and Programs Study (SHPPS) state data, this study develops a comprehensive approach to characterize the overall prevention policy environment for schools and links the policy environments to youth obesity for each state.
• Of nearly 250 state-level obesity prevention-policy questions, the analysis and assessment suggested the reality of the number of policies adopted by states:
o On average states adopted about half (49%) of the 100 food service and nutrition policies
o 38% of the 146 physical activity and education policies
o 17% of the weight assessment policies
• After adjusting for ethnicity and income, the average proportion of food service and nutrition policies adopted by states was correlated with the prevalence of youth obesity.
• No correlation was found between physical activity and education or weight assessment policies and youth obesity.
Nanney, Marilyn S., Nelson, Toben, Wall, Melanie, Haddad, Tarek, Kubik, Martha, Laska, Melissa Nelson, and Story, Mary. “State School Nutrition and Physical Activity Policy Environments and Youth Obesity.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 38.1 (2010): 9-16.

“Influence of the Social Environment on Children’s School Travel” (2010)
• This study analyzes the association between parental perceptions of the social environment and walking and biking to school among 10-14 year-olds.
• The social environment was measured with a 3-item scale assessing child-centered social control.
• Of children whose parents reported high levels of social control, 37% walked or biked to school, compared with 24% of children whose parents reported low or neutral levels.
• The association was strongest for girls and non-Hispanic whites.
• Researchers conclude that higher levels of parent-perceived child-centered social control are associated with more walking and biking to school. Therefore, increasing physical activity through active travel to school may require intervention programs to address the social environment.

McDonald, N., Deakin, E., and Aalborg, A.E. “Influence of the Social Environment on Children’s School Travel.” Preventive Medicine. 50.Suppl 1 (2010): 65-68.

“Mapping the Walk to School Using Accelerometry Combined with a Global Positioning System” (2010)
• This study combined accelerometer and GPS data to investigate the level and location of physical activity in children walking to school.
• Mean accelerometer counts per minute before school were 43% higher in children who walked to school than those traveling by car.
• 11% of daily moderate to vigorous physical activity occurred during the walk to school.
• Total activity during the walk to school was twice that in the playground, with the journey to school contributing three times as much moderate to vigorous physical activity as time in the playground.

Cooper, Ashley R., Page, Angie S., Wheeler, Benedict W., Griew, Pippa, Davis, Laura, Hillsdon, Melvyn, and Jago, Russell. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 38.2 (2010): 178-183.

“Vehicle Emissions during Children’s School Commuting: Impacts of Education Policy” (2010)
• This study explores how school policies influence the environmental impacts of school commutes, motivated by increased interest in school choice policies and in reducing bus services to address recent budget shortfalls.
• Results indicate that eliminating district-wide school choice (i.e., returning to a system with neighborhood schools only) would have significant impacts on transport modes and emissions, whereas in many cases proposed shifts in school choice and bus-provision policies would have only modest impacts.
• Policies such as school choice and school siting may conflict with the goal of increasing rates of active (i.e., nonmotorized) school commuting.
• Researchers report that these findings underscore the need to critically evaluate transportation-related environmental and health impacts of currently proposed changes in school policy.

Marshall, JD, Wilson, RD, Meyer, KL, Rajangam, SK, McDonald, NC, and Wilson, EJ. “Vehicle Emissions during Children’s School Commuting: Impacts of Education Policy.” Environmental Science and Technology. (2010)

“Infrastructure programs and policies to increase bicycling: An international review” (2010) 
• This review assesses existing research on the effects of various interventions on levels of bicycling including infrastructure, integration with public transport, education and marketing program, bicycle access programs and legal issues.
• A review of 139 studies shows positive associations between specific interventions and levels of bicycling.
• A secondary review of 14 case studies of cities adopting multiple interventions show that almost all cities adopting comprehensive packages of interventions experienced large increases in the number of bicycle trips and share of people bicycling.
• Substantial increases in bicycling require an integrated package of many different, complementary interventions, including infrastructure provision and pro-bicycle programs, supportive land use planning, and restrictions on car use.

Pucher, John, Dill, Jennifer, and Handy, Susan. “Infrastructure programs and policies to increase bicycling: An international review.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 50 (2010): S106-S125.

“Factors Associated with Federal Transportation Funding for Local Pedestrian and Bicycle Programming and Facilities” (2009) 
• This study examined bicycle- and pedestrian related investments authorized by federal transportation legislation in 3,140 counties in the United States by region, population size and urbanization, social and economic characteristics, and indicators of travel-related walking and bicycling.
• From 1992 to 2004, states and counties implemented 10,012 bicycle- and pedestrian-related projects representing $3.17 billion in federal expenditures.
• Researchers identified disparities in implementation and system-building outcomes according to population size and location and social and economic indicators. Counties characterized by persistent poverty or low educational status were less likely to implement projects.
• Three key policy recommendations for improving public health outcomes are drawn from this research:
     o Improved data tracking
     o More explicit linkages between transportation projects and public health
     o Improved planning assistance to underserved communities are all seen as essential steps

Cradock, Angie L., Troped, Philip J., Fields, Billy, Melly, Steven J., Simms, Shannon V., Gimmler, Franz, and Fowler, Marianne. “Factors Associated with Federal Transportation Funding for Local Pedestrian and Bicycle Programming and Facilities.” Journal of Public Health Policy. 30 (2009): S38-S72.

“From Partnership to Policy: The Evolution of Active Living by Design in Portland, Oregon” (2009) 
• Active Living by Design focused on two communities in Portland, Oregon: one urban, low-income community with poor bicycle/pedestrian and park infrastructure, the other a semirural community expected to see urban growth in the next 30 years.
• The goals of Active Living by Design included:
    o prepare and sustain a network of public health, planning, community and policymaking partner
    o affect urban planning and policy decisions to influence built-environment changes
    o support active-living program and promotion partners
• This project proved the community-action model to be a valuable tool for organizing intervention activities and bringing diverse partners together.
• Reviewers conclude that many of the partnerships’ collaborative efforts to encourage healthy communities through policy, environmental, and social change have been largely successful and can serve as a model for other communities.

Dobson, NG and Gilroy, AR. “From Partnerships to Policy: The Evolution of Active Living by Design in Portland, Oregon.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 37.6.2 (2009): S436-S444.

“Get Active Orlando: Changing the Built Environment to Increase Physical Activity” (2009) 
• Active Living by Design’s Get Active Orlando partnership focused on incorporating activity living considerations into Orlando’s downtown, home to many low-income and ethnically diverse resident and seniors.
• A baseline survey of all streets, sidewalks, and bicycle lanes was completed and a sequence of plans and policies to create changes were identified.
• Immediate changes include the initiation of a senior walking program, bicycle refurbishments and giveaway program, and community bicycle-riding events, and a social marketing campaign that emphasized simple lifestyle changes.
• Get Active Orlando influenced adoption of public policies supporting active living in Orlando, including the Downtown Transportation Plan, Streetscape Guidelines, Design Standards Review Checklist, and growth management policies.
• The city established a Mayor’s Advisory Council on Active Living, a testament to the heightened significance of active living in Orlando.
• Creating connections across disciplines including land-use planning, transportation, public health, and economic development allowed Get Active Orlando to secure substantial policy change to influence design of the built environment.
• Engaging community members, including youth, as leaders was an important factor in program success.

McCreedy, M and Leslie, JG. “Get Active Orlando: Changing the Built Environment to Increase Physical Activity.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 37.6.2 (2009): S395-S402.

“Partnership Moves Community Toward Complete Streets” (2009) 
• This article reviews the Partnership for Active Communities efforts to bring together multidisciplinary organizations to create a 5-year project to support increased walking and bicycling in the Sacramento, CA area.
• Using a community action model, the partnership focused on programs and promotions to expand walk- and bike-to-school programs.
• A comprehensive communications plan united diverse partnership interests to advocate for Complete Streets policy change and improve transportation infrastructure.
• As a result of the program, Walk- and bike-to-school programs grew, and community-design workshops helped leverage more than $12 million in additional support, including Safe Routes to School grants.
• Complete Streets is now included as a policy in the region’s transportation plan, in the mobility element of the city’s updated general plan and the county’s draft circulation plan, and in the regional transit master plan.

Geraghty, Anne. B., Seifert, Walt, Holm, Christopher, V., Duarte, Teri H., and Farrar, Steve M. “Partnership Move Community Toward Complete Streets.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 37.6.2 (2009): S420-S427.

“Transforming a Small Midwestern City for Physical Activity: From the Sidewalks Up” (2009)
• Jackson, Michigan (population 36,000) started active living interventions to help solve residents’ low physical activity levels.
• In 2003, Jackson began a 3-prong community intervention utilizing the 5P model to increase safe physical activity opportunities and encourage walking and biking for short trips by focusing work on projects at 1) elementary schools, 2) worksites, and 3) city-wide networks.
• Evaluation results show changes in attitudes toward active transportation (8% increase in children who thought walking to school was "safer" postintervention), intentions to try active transportation (43% of Smart Commute Day participants "would" smart commute more often postevent), and increased physical activity (the percentage of students walking to school more than doubled at 3 of 4 intervention schools).
• In addition, a community level observational study was conducted at 10 locations in the city in 2005 and 2006. The number of people seen using active transportation increased from 1,028 in 2005 to 1,853 people in 2006 (a 63% increase).
• Local community-driven projects to increase walking and biking can be effective by utilizing a variety of interventions, from the individual to the policy level.

Hendricks, K., Wilkerson, R., Vogt, C., and TenBrink, S. “Transforming a small Midwestern city for physical activity: from the sidewalks up.” Journal of Physical Activity and Health. 6.6. (2009): 690-698.

“Physical Activity: Health Outcomes and Importance for Public Health Policy” (2009)
• This brief summary of evidence of benefits from being physically active reveals that national surveillance data indicate a substantial portion of youth and adults in the United States do not meet recommendations.
• Available data indicate that various race and ethnic minorities, persons of very low income and those with mental or physical disabilities have even more to gain from increases in physical activity as they are among the least active in the population, but have limited access to needed resources.
• To realize the health-promoting benefits of increased activity by at-risk populations, major policies and programs need implementing that ensure:

“Active Living For Rural Youth: Addressing Physical Inactivity For Rural Communities” (2009)
• Active living has four domains: transportation, recreation, occupation, and household.
• Active living research incorporates an ecological approach to promoting physical activity by recognizing that individual behavior, social environments, physical environments, and policies contribute to behavior change.
• This study tests and refines a conceptual model between the individual and the environment in rural communities.
• Findings reveal a host of “predisposing” and “enabling” factors, including sociodemographic, environmental, policy, and programmatic elements that extend across the fours domains of active living.
• Researchers suggest that efforts to combat childhood obesity must consider rural residents a priority population because of the unique challenges that rural communities face.

Yousefian, A, Ziller, E, Swartz, J, and Hartley, D. “Active living for rural youth: addressing physical inactivity in rural communities.” Journal of Public Health Management and Practice. 15.3 (2009): 223-231.

“Pilot Evaluation of a Walking School Bus Program in a Low-Income, Urban Community” (2009)
• This study evaluates the impact of a walking school bus on student transport in a low-income, urban neighborhood.
• The intervention consisted of a part-time walking school bus coordinator and parent volunteers.
• At intervention schools, three walking school buses were developed and maintained with an individual route to school (distances ranged from 0.3 to 1.5 miles long) and took 15-40 minutes from start to finish.
• After 12-months of the intervention, the number of students who walked to the intervention school increased from 20% to 25%.
• The number of students who walked to control schools decreased.

Mendoza, Jason A., Levinger, David D., and Johnston, Brian D. “Pilot evaluation of a walking school bus program in a low-income, urban community.” BMC Public Health. 9 (2009): 122-137.

“Research Brief: Walking and Biking to School, Physical Activity and Health Outcomes” (2009) 
• This brief summarizes research on active transport to school, physical activity levels and health outcomes.
• It also explores the factors that influence walking and biking to school, including the impact of SRTS programs.

McMillan, TE. “Research Brief: Walking and Biking to School, Physical Activity and Health Outcomes.” Active Living Research. (2009): available at http://www.activelivingresearch.org/files/ALR_Brief_ActiveTransport.pdf

“Research Brief: Active Transportation, Making the link from Transportation to Physical Activity and Obesity” (2009)
• This research brief presents an overview of findings demonstrating the potential impact of infrastructure investments and other transportation programs on walking and bicycling for transportation, and on related health outcomes.
• It also focuses on public transit, greenways and trails, school-related infrastructure and programs, pedestrian and bicycle facilities, and efforts to manage car traffic.

Rodriquez, DA. “Research Brief: Active Transportation, Making the link from Transportation to Physical Activity and Obesity.” Active Living Research. (2009): available at http://www.activelivingresearch.org/files/ALR_Brief_ActiveTransportation.pdf

“The Role of State Policy in Promoting Physical Activity” (2009) 
• This commentary demonstrates the growing interest of state legislatures in adopting policies that promote physical activity in schools and communities.
• School physical activity legislation and built environment legislation are just two examples of how the legislative process can drive the promotion of physical activity.
• The author suggests that it is critical for research to be communicated to policy makers so that legislation can be drafted appropriately.

Morandi, Larry. “The role of state policy in promoting physical activity.” Preventive Medicine. 49.4 (2009): 299-300.

“Physical Activity Promotion: A Local and State Health Department Perspective” (2009)
• Although health departments do not have the resources to independently address physical inactivity, the authors of this article suggest that health departments could be catalysts for institutional and community-based changes to promote physical activity.
• For children, public health departments can promote high-quality physical education in schools and promote social support networks for physical activity, such as walking clubs and other group activities.
• Health departments must reach out to disadvantaged communities and assist them in pursuing funding opportunities such as Safe Routes to School.

Simon, Paul, Gonzalez, Eloisa, Ginsburg, David, Abrams, Jennifer, and Fielding, Jonathan. “Physical Activity Promotion: A local and state health department perspective.” Preventive Medicine. 49.4 (2009): 297-298.

“Recommendations For Advancing Opportunities to Increase Physical Activity in Racial/Ethnic Minority Communities” (2009) 
• This article suggests that public policies, informed by research, that support population-level approaches to increase physical activity, is needed to increase physical activity opportunities to racial/ethnic minority communities.
• The authors suggest that by creating better schools in low income neighborhoods, children would be more likely to live within walking distance to school and choose active transportation to and from school.
• Building infrastructure that includes sidewalks, walking trails, bicycle lanes, and increased availability of reliable public transportation in racial/ethnic minorities is a strategy to support and allow engaging in active forms of transportation and physical activity.

Whitt-Glover, Melicia C., Crespo, Carlos J. and Joe, Jennie. “Recommendations for advancing opportunities to increase physical activity in racial/ethnic minority communities.” Preventive Medicine. 49.4 (2009): 292-293.

“Identifying Factors Affecting the Number of Students Walking or Biking to School” (2009) 
• This study investigates the characteristics of student travel behaviors before the implementation of SRTS program and identifies the influential factors affecting the number of children to walk or bike to school.
• Parents reported the following as the five primary factors affecting children’s walking or biking: 
    - distance (67.0%) 
    - traffic speed along route (53.7%) 
    - traffic amount along route (51.3%) 
    - violence or crime (42.1%) 
    - intersection safety (38.2%)
• Parents reported the following as the five primary factors that would change their decisions and allow their children to walk or bike to school: 
    - distance (25.5%) 
    - safety of intersections and crossings (22.0%) 
    - weather or climate (21.9%) 
    - presence of an adult cowalker (17.5%) 
    - convenience of driving (15.0%)
• Researchers suggest that distance between the rankings reveal a variance between people’s perceptions and reactions.
• Subjective opinions were also considered in this study demonstrating that most students and parents held positive attitudes toward students walking or biking to school:
    - Forty percent of students consider walking or biking to school “fun” or “very fun” and less than 10 percent of students consider it “boring or “very boring”
    - 57.2 percent of students consider it “healthy” or “very healthy” to walk or bike to school 
    - 78.8 percent of students have asked for permission to walk or bike to school 
    - Only 4.1 percent of students believed their schools discourage or strongly discourage students to walk or bike to school 
    - 32.9 percent of parents will allow their children to walk or bike alone at different grades.

Zhou, Huaguo, Zhao, Jiguang, Hsu, Peter, and Rouse, Jeanette. “Identifying Factors Affecting the Number of Students Walking or Biking to School.” Institute of Transportation Engineers Journal. 79.10 (2009).

“Recommended Community Strategies and Measurements to Prevent Obesity in the United States” (2009) 
• The CDC initiated the Common Community Measures for Obesity Prevention Project (the Measures Project) to identify and recommend a set of obesity prevention strategies and corresponding suggested measurements that local governments and communities can use to plan, implement, and monitor initiatives to prevent obesity.
• Strategies 17-23 suggest community improvements that are addressed by Safe Routes to School. These recommendations suggest that communities should:
- enhance infrastructure supporting bicycling
- enhance infrastructure supporting walking
- support locating schools within easy walking distance of residential areas
- improve access to public transportation
- zone for mixed-land use development
- enhance personal safety in areas where persons are or could be physically active
- enhance traffic safety where persons are or could be physically active

Khan, Laura Kettel, Sobush, Kathleen, Keener, Dana, Goodman, Kenneth, Lowry, Amy, Kazietek, Jakub, and Zaro, Susan. “Recommended Community Strategies and Measurements to Prevent Obesity in the United States.” Center for Disease Control. (2009): 58(RR07); 1-26.

“Demographic, Environmental, Access, and Attitude Factors That Influence Walking to School by Elementary School-Aged Children” (2009)
• A sample of 1,897 elementary school-aged children (3rd-5th graders) throughout Michigan completed the Michigan Safe Routes to School Survey, measuring environmental, access, and attitudinal perceptions toward school routes and transportation methods
• Results indicate that as children get older, the odds of walking to school increase
• If the student perceives walking as a time saver, or safe, the student is more likely to walk
• Distance negatively impacts the odds a child will walk to school, the farther a student lives, the less likely they are to walk
• If the student’s parents have a car or access to a school bus, the student is less likely to walk
• This study identifies an important focus for SRTS programs; to promote walking to school, efforts need to focus on safety as well as convenience

Rodriguez, Ariel and Vogt, Christine A. “Environmental, Access, and Attitude Factors That Influence Walking to School by Elementary School-Aged Children.” Journal of School Health. 79.6 (2009): 255-261.

“Physical Fitness and Academic Achievement in Elementary School Children” (2009) 
• Fitness, mathematics, and reading/language data were collected from 134 third-fifth-grade children.
• A negative association was noted between the 1-mile run and mathematics scores
• A positive relationship was observed between muscular fitness and mathematics
• This study supports a link between specific components of physical fitness and academic achievement in elementary school children.

Eveland-Sayers, Brandi M., Farley, Richard S., Fuller, Dana K., Morgan, Don W., and Caputo, Jennifer L. “Physical Fitness and Academic Achievement in Elementary School Children.” Journal of Physical Activity and Health. 66 (2009):99-104

“Why Parents Drive Children to School” (2009)
• The purpose of this study is to understand why many parents choose to drive their children to school, even short distances, and identify implications for programs to increase walking and biking to school.
• Results from a telephone survey reveal that 75% of parents drive their children less then 2 miles to school for convenience and to save time.
• Nearly 50% of parents that drive their children less then 2 miles to school do not allow their children to walk without adult supervision.
• Researchers suggest that SRTS programs consider convenience and time constraints by providing ways for children to walk to school supervised with someone other then a parent.

McDonald, Noreen C. and Aalborg, Annette E. “Why Parents Drive Children to School.” Journal of the American Planning Association. 75.3 (2009): 331-342.

“Policy Statement – Pedestrian Safety” (2009)
• Approximately 900 pediatric pedestrians younger than 19 years are killed each year.
• Each year, 51,000 children are injured as pedestrians.
• This policy statement published by the American Academy of Pediatrics supports community- and school- based strategies that minimize a child’s exposure to traffic, especially high-speed, high-volume traffic.
• The American Academy of Pediatrics makes 10 recommendations to create safe pedestrian environments for children to enable greater amounts of walking and physical activity, including; adult supervision coupled with pedestrian education and environmental modification.

Agran, Phyllis and Weiss, Jeffery C. “Policy Statement – Pedestrian Safety.” American Academy of Pediatrics. 124.2 (2009): 801-813.

“Environmental Correlates of Children’s Active Transportation: A Systematic Literature Review” (2009)
• This is a systematic review of 38 articles that investigate the environmental (physical, economic, socio-cultural and political) correlates of active transportation (AT) among young people aged 5-18 years
• Lower rates of active transport were correlated with greater distance, increasing household income and increasing car ownership
• Non-white ethnic background is positively associated with active transport.
• Accessibility to recreational facilities and walk or bike paths are possibly associated with higher rates of active transport
• Researchers highlight the complexity of variables promoting or inhibiting children’s active transport and suggest areas for future research

Pont, Karina, Ziviani, Jenny, Wadley, David, Bennett, Sally and Abbott, Rebecca. “Environmental Correlates of Children’s Active Transportation: A Systematic Literature Review”. Health and Place. 15 (2009) 849-862.

“Child Transport Practices and Perceived Barriers in Active Commuting to School” (2009)
• This study examines 496 parental questionnaires to evaluate the transport practices of school children and perceived factors that influenced parental decisions regarding their child’s use of active transport to commute to school
• Only 1/3 of the children report using active transport to and from school
• Commuting distance is significantly associated with increased odds of active transport
• Other factors that reportedly influence parental decisions regarding their child’s active transport to school are: age, provision of safe walking paths, adult supervision, commuting distance, and child’s fitness level

Yeung, Jennifer, Wearing, Scott, and Hills, Andrew P. “Child Transport Practices and Perceived Barriers in Active Commuting to School”. Transportation Research Part A. 42 (2008) 895-900.

“Household Interactions and Children’s School Travel: The Effect of Parental Work Patterns on Walking and Biking to School” (2009)
• This cross-sectional research study evaluates how household interactions affect walking and biking to school
• Results indicate that employment status and commute patterns affect non-motorized travel
• Data reveal that students make 11% of school trips by themselves
• Mother’s are most likely to be the child’s travel companion (30%) and are very likely to drive the children to school
• Children (5-14) with mothers who commute to work in the morning are less likely to walk or bike to school
• Implications of these findings suggest that policymakers may want to create programs that allow parents to share chaperoning responsibilities for the school trip

McDonald, Noreen. “Household Interactions and Children’s School Travel: The Effect of Parental Work Patterns on Walking and Biking to School”. Journal of Transport Geography. 16 (2008) 324-331.

"The Built Environment: Designing Communities to Promote Physical Activity in Children” (2009) 
• This article discusses how the built environment of a community affects children’s opportunities for physical activity
• Walking to school is identified as the most universal opportunity for incidental physical activity, which are activities for which exercise is not the primary goal
• The TAAG study, as noted in this policy report, provided evidence that every mile that a girl lived farther from school translated to significantly fewer minutes of metabolic activity per week
• The policy report identifies 3 recommendations for pediatricians; ask patients about incidental physical activity opportunities in their community, ask patients to advocate for environmental improvements that will allow their children to walk to school, and advocate for opportunities that will increase physical activity for children
• The policy report identifies 5 recommendations for government; pass and promote laws that promote active living, create and maintain green spaces, promote legislation and fund programs that create active commuting opportunities, fund research on the built environment and physical activity, and serve as a model for the community by siting buildings in locations that promote activity living.

Tester, June M. and the Committee on Environmental Health. “The Built Environment: Designing Communities to Promote Physical Activity in Children.” Pediatrics. 123.6 (2009) 1591-1598.

“Correlates of Walking to School and Implications for Public Policies: Survey Results from Parents of Elementary School Children in Austin, Texas” (2009)
• This study identifies correlations between walking behaviors to school and relevant policy implications.
• Parents’ and children’s positive attitude, regular walking behavior, and supportive peer influences were positively correlated with walking to school.
• Distance and safety concerns were strongly negatively correlated with walking to school, as well as the presence of highways/freeways, convenience stores, office buildings, and bus stops en route.
• The findings of this study suggest that society should give high priority to lower socioeconomic status populations and to multi-agency policy interventions that facilitate environmental changes, safety improvements, and educational programs targeting both parents and children.

Zhu, Xuemei and Lee, Chanam. “Correlates of Walking to School and Implications for Public Policies: Survey Results from Parents of Elementary School Children in Austin, Texas.” Journal of Public Health Policy. 30 (2000): S177-S202.

“Factors Associated with Federal Transportation Funding for Local Pedestrian and Bicycle Programming and Facilities” (2009) 
• This study examines bicycle- and pedestrian-related investments authorized by federal transportation legislation in 3,140 counties in the United States by region, population size and urbanization, social and economic characteristics, and indicators of travel-related walking and bicycling.
• From 1992 to 2004, states and counties implemented 10,012 bicycle- and pedestrian-related projects representing $3.17 billion in federal expenditures.
• Disparities in implementation and system-building outcomes were identified according to population size and location.
• Counties characterized by persistent poverty and low educational status were less likely to implement projects.
• Improved data tracking, more explicit linkages between transportation projects and public health, and improved planning assistance to underserved communities are the key policy recommendations for improving public health outcomes drawn from this research.

Cradock, Angie L., Troped, Philip J., Fields, Billy, Melly, Steven J., Simms, Shannon V., Gimmler, Franz and Fowler, Marianne. “Factors Associated with Federal Transportation Funding for Local Pedestrian and Bicycle Programming and Facilities.” Journal of Public Health Policy. 30 (2009): S38-S72.

“Sociodemographic, Family, and Environmental Factors Associated with Active Commuting to School among US Adolescents” (2009) 
• Consistent with previous research, this study finds distance to school to be the strongest indicator of active commuting.
• This study reports that individuals are more likely to actively commute if they are male, Latino, from lower-income families, attend public school and live in urban areas.
• Parental walking for transportation and perceptions of neighborhood safety were not associated with adolescent active commuting.

Babey, Susan H., Hastert, Theresa A., Huang, Winnie and Brown, Richard E. “Sociodemographic, Family and Environmental Factors Associated with Active Commuting to School among US Adolescents.” Journal of Public Health Policy. 30 (2009): S203-S220.

“Walking and Cycling to School: Predictors of Increases Among Children and Adolescents” (2009) 
• This study examines predictors of active commuting to school among children and adolescents’ over a 2-year period.
• Results report that children whose parents know many people in the neighborhood are more likely to increase their active commuting compared with other children.
• Parents of adolescents who perceived there to be insufficient traffic lights and pedestrian crossings in their neighborhood were less likely to increase their active commuting.
• This study implies that social factors as well as physical environmental characteristics are the most important predictors of active commuting among children and adolescents.

Hume, Clare, Timperio, Anna, Salmon, Jo, Carver, Alison, Giles-Cortie, Billie and Crawford, David. “Walking and Cycling to School: Predictors of Increases Among Children and Adolescents.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 36.3 (2009): 195-200.

“Active School Transport. Physical Activity Levels and Body Weight of Children and Youth: A Systematic Review” (2009) 
• This article reviews 13 studies that explore whether children who actively commute to school have increased physical activity levels or a healthier body weight.
• Studies demonstrate that children who actively commute to school accumulate more physical activity then passive commuters.
• Evidence for the impact of active school transport promoting healthy body weights for children and youth requires more attention.

Faulkner,Guy E,J,. Buliung, Ron M., Flora, Parminder K. and Fusco, Caroline. “Active School Transport, Physical Activity Levels and Body Weight of Children and youth: A Systematic Review.” Preventive Medicine. 48 (2009): 3-8.

“Children Living Near Green Spaces Are More Active” (2009) 
• In this study of children aged 8-10, for every additional park located within a half-mile of their home, girls are twice as likely to walk to school.
• Boys are 60 percent more likely to walk in leisure time when a park is located within a half-mile of their home.
• This study supports a statement from the American Heart Association made in June of 2008 stating, “walkable” neighborhoods, with adequate sidewalks and areas for physical activity, can play an important role in combating the rise in obesity rates by making it easier to get daily exercise.

Lamber, Marie, Kestens, Yan, Gauvin, Lise, Van Hulst, Andraea and Danie, Mark. “Children Living Near Green Spaces are More Active.” American Heart Association, 2009.

“Changes in the Percentage of Students Who Walk or Bike to School – United States, 1969 and 2001” (2008)
• Data from the 1969 and 2001 National Household Transportation Survey report that a smaller percentage of students lived within 1 mile of school in 2001 than in 1969.
• The percentage of students who walked or biked any distance decreased from 42.0% to 16.2%.
• Nearly half of students used more than 1 travel mode or went to an additional destination en route between home and school in 2001.
• Implications from this study indicate that a multidisciplinary effort is needed to increase the percentage of students who walk or bike to school, as well as decrease the distances that students travel.

Ham, Sandra A., Martin, Sarah, and Kohl III, Harold W. “Changes in the Percentage of Students Who Walk or Bike to School – United States, 1969 and 2001.” Journal of Physical Activity and Health. 5.2 (2008): 205-215

“Preventing Childhood Obesity through State Policy: Predictors of Bill Enactment” (2008)
• This study identifies factors that predict successful enactment of childhood obesity preventions in all 50 states.
• Bipartisan sponsorship, introduction in the state senate, budget proposals, and content areas related to Safe Routes to School, walking/biking trails, model school policies, statewide initiatives, and task forces and studies are bill-level factors associated with increased likelihood of enactment.
• Bill-level factors are found to be more influential in their effect on policy enactment than state-level factors.

Boehmer, Tegan K, Luke, Douglas A, Haire-Joshu, Debra L, Bates, Hannalori S. and Brownson, Ross C. “Preventing Childhood Obesity Through State Policy: Predictors of Bill Enactment.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 34.4 (2008): 333-340.

“Children’s Active Commuting to School: Current Knowledge and Future Directions” (2008) 
• This review on predictors and health consequences of active commuting to school evaluates programs specific to children’s walking and bicycling to school, including Safe Routes to School.
• A thorough review of the research demonstrates that children who walk or bicycle to school have higher daily levels of physical activity and better cardiovascular fitness than do children who do not actively commute to school.
• A review of the literature identifies a wide range of predictors of children’s active commuting behaviors, including demographic factors, individual and family factors, school factors (including the immediate area surrounding schools), and social and physical environmental factors.
• Safe Routes to School and the Walking School Bus are two public health efforts that promote walking and bicycling to school.
• Evidence suggests that these activities are viewed positively by key stakeholders and have positive effects on children’s active commuting to school.

Davison, Kirsten K., Werder, Jessica L. and Lawson, Catherine T. “Children’s Active Commuting to School: Current Knowledge and Future Directions.” Preventing Chronic Disease. 5.3 (2008): A100.

“Policies Related to Active Transport To and From School: A Multisite Case Study” (2008) 
• This study identifies policies and factors that influence active transport to and from school (ATS) initiatives.
• Among diverse schools, strategies identified to increase ATS include influence of the built environment, safety concerns, funding and trans-disciplinary collaboration.
• Safe Routes to School is a potential funding opportunity, noting that section 1404 of SAFETEA-LU provides funding (for the first time) for State Departments of Transportation to create and administer Safe Routes to School programs.

Eyler, Amy A., Brownson, Ross C., Doescher, Mark P., Evenson, Kelly R., Fesperman, Carrie E., Litt, Jill S., Pluto, Delores, Steinman, Lesley E., Terpstra, Jennifer L., Troped, Philip J. and Schmid, Thomas L. “Policies Related to Active Transport To and From School: A Multisite Case Study.” Health Education Research. 23.6 (2008): 963-975.

“Implementing Safe Routes to School: Application for the Socioecological Model and Issues to Consider” (2008) 
• This study reports that the national Safe Routes to School program has the potential to positively influence individuals, communities, and the environment regardless of race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status by providing funds to address some of the barriers and improve the ability of students to safely walk and bicycle to school.
• The socioecological model (SEM) is widely used in public health and includes five levels of influence on behavior, from individual to public policy. Application of SEM to Safe Routes to School provides a framework for a comprehensive approach to improve active travel to school.

Martin, Sarah L., Moeti, Refilwe and Pullen-Seufert, Nancy. “Implementing Safe Routes to School: Application for the Socioecological Model and Issues to Consider.” Health Promotion Practice. (2008).

“Critical Factors for Active Transportation to School Among Low-Income and Minority Students” (2008) 
• This study analyzes rates of walking and biking to school among low-income and minority youth in the United States. Results report:
      o Hispanics have the highest rate of active transportation (27.7%) while whites have the lowest (9.4%).
      o Families earning less than $20,000 walk more than twice as much as students from households earning more than $60,000.
      o High school students have the lowest rates of active transport across all income and racial groups.
      o Living within a half-mile of school greatly increases the likelihood of walking or biking to school.
• A significant implication of these findings is that Safe Routes to School programs have the potential to strongly benefit minority and low-income students, especially because many of those students are more likely to live near the school they attend.

McDonald, Noreen C. “Critical Factors for Active Transportation to School Among Low-Income and Minority Students. Evidence from the 2001 National Household Travel Survey.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 34.4 (2008): 341-344.

“Cost Effectiveness of Community-Based Physical Activity Interventions” (2008) 
• This study assesses the cost-effectiveness of population-wide strategies to promote physical activity by using a lifetime cost-effectiveness analysis (dollars per quality-adjusted life year [QALY]).
• All of the evaluated physical activity interventions appear to reduce disease incidence, to be cost-effective, and offer good value for money.
• The results support using any of the seven evaluated interventions as part of public health efforts to promote physical activity.

Roux, Larissa, Pratt, Michael, Tengs, Tammy O. and Yore, Michelle M. “Cost Effectiveness of Community-Based Physical Activity Interventions.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 35.6 (2008): 578-588.

“Investment in Safe Routes to School Projects: Public Health Benefits for the Larger Community” (2008)
• This study estimates the amount of land area and population in the United States that could be affected by Safe Routes to School programs, examines the types of locations where such improvements are likely to affect the greatest number of people and the improvements it could have on the larger community.
• Communities with limited funds may be able to improve their overall walkability for all citizens by using federal Safe Routes to School funding to improve walking and cycling routes to schools.

Watson, Margaret and Dannenberg, Andrew. “Investment in Safe Routes to School Projects: Public Health Benefits for the Larger Community.” Preventing Chronic Disease. 5.3 (2008).

“Safe Routes to School Safety and Mobility Analysis” (2007) 
• The purpose of this report is to evaluate the effectiveness of the SRTS program in reducing crashes, injuries and fatalities involving children in the vicinity of the projects, the impact of the program on levels of walking and bicycling to school, and the safety benefits of the program in comparison with other highway safety programs.
• Evaluation results report an increase in walking and bicycling to and from school from 10%-200% depending on the source of information (direct observation vs. parent estimates).
• California reports an overall decline in the number of child pedestrians/bicyclists injured in Safe Routes to School program areas.
• SRTS projects saw a similar decline in the actual numbers of child pedestrian/bicyclist injuries as the control areas and across California. However, when factoring in the increase in walking and bicycling in the SRTS project