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The Influence of the Built Environment on Travel Behaviors
Overview:
The built environment—which includes buildings, streets, parks, and other man-made physical surroundings—affects a person’s choices regarding opportunities for physical activity and the safety of engaging in physical activity.
The decision to walk or bicycle for short trips often depends on time, purpose, or environmental factors. Research shows that features of the built environment such as sidewalks, street lights, traffic, hills, and overall walkability are related to travel behaviors. This section highlights research suggesting that the make-up of streets and the built environment can play a role in physical activity promotion and active travel behaviors, especially among children to and from school.
Research Highlights:
• Analysis reveals that the distance between home and school is the most important factor in determining whether a child used active transport to get to school (Larsen, et al., 2009).
• Only 14% of students aged 5-14 years usually walk to school (Beck, et al., 2008).
• The most frequently reported barrier to walking to school is distance (Beck, et al., 2008).
• A 5% increase in neighborhood walkability is associated with:
o 32.1% more minutes devoted to physically active travel
o 6.5% fewer vehicle miles traveled (VMT) per capita
(Frank, et al., 2006).
• Results show that children who pass completed Safe Routes to School projects are more likely to show increases in walking or bicycle travel than are children who do not pass by projects (15% vs 4%), supporting the effectiveness of Safe Routes to School construction projects in increasing walking or bicycling to school for children who pass these projects on their way to school (Boarnet, et al., 2005).
Academic Research Articles and Findings:
“Childhood Obesity and the Built Environment” (2010)
• Using the Ecological Systems Theory (EST) as a model, researchers examined the existing literature with respect to neighborhood factors as outlined in EST, including factors related to the family and the school, which are embedded in larger social contexts of the community and society.
• Researchers found that progress has been made with respect to the body of evidence supporting the role of neighborhood factors on childhood obesity and obesity-related behaviors, although work remains to be done to enhance the understanding of neighborhood level factors.
• Implications of these studies will inform multilevel interventions which are urgently needed to tackle the growing epidemic of childhood obesity in the US.
Galvez, MP, Pearl, M, and Yen, IH. “Childhood obesity and the built environment.” Current Opinion in Pediatrics. (2010).
“Infrastructure programs and policies to increase bicycling: An international review” (2010)
• This review assesses existing research on the effects of various interventions on levels of bicycling including infrastructure, integration with public transport, education and marketing program, bicycle access programs and legal issues.
• A review of 139 studies shows positive associations between specific interventions and levels of bicycling.
• A secondary review of 14 case studies of cities adopting multiple interventions show that almost all cities adopting comprehensive packages of interventions experienced large increases in the number of bicycle trips and share of people bicycling.
• Substantial increases in bicycling require an integrated package of many different, complementary interventions, including infrastructure provision and pro-bicycle programs, supportive land use planning, and restrictions on car use.
Pucher, John, Dill, Jennifer, and Handy, Susan. “Infrastructure programs and policies to increase bicycling: An international review.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 50 (2010): S106-S125.
“Active Living For Rural Youth: Addressing Physical Inactivity For Rural Communities” (2009)
• Active living has four domains: transportation, recreation, occupation, and household.
• Active living research incorporates an ecological approach to promoting physical activity by recognizing that individual behavior, social environments, physical environments, and policies contribute to behavior change.
• This study tests and refines a conceptual model between the individual and the environment in rural communities.
• Findings reveal a host of “predisposing” and “enabling” factors, including sociodemographic, environmental, policy, and programmatic elements that extend across the fours domains of active living.
• Researchers suggest that efforts to combat childhood obesity must consider rural residents a priority population because of the unique challenges that rural communities face.
Yousefian, A, Ziller, E, Swartz, J, and Hartley, D. “Active living for rural youth: addressing physical inactivity in rural communities.” Journal of Public Health Management and Practice. 15.3 (2009): 223-231.
“Pilot Evaluation of a Walking School Bus Program in a Low-Income, Urban Community” (2009)
• This study evaluates the impact of a walking school bus on student transport in a low-income, urban neighborhood.
• The intervention consisted of a part-time walking school bus coordinator and parent volunteers.
• At intervention schools, three walking school buses were developed and maintained with an individual route to school (distances ranged from 0.3 to 1.5 miles long) and took 15-40 minutes from start to finish.
• After 12-months of the intervention, the number of students who walked to the intervention school increased from 20% to 25%.
• The number of students who walked to control schools decreased.
Mendoza, Jason A., Levinger, David D., and Johnston, Brian D. “Pilot evaluation of a walking school bus program in a low-income, urban community.” BMC Public Health. 9 (2009): 122-137.
“Research Brief: Walking and Biking to School, Physical Activity and Health Outcomes” (2009)
• This brief summarizes research on active transport to school, physical activity levels and health outcomes.
• It also explores the factors that influence walking and biking to school, including the impact of SRTS programs.
McMillan, TE. “Research Brief: Walking and Biking to School, Physical Activity and Health Outcomes.” Active Living Research. (2009): available at http://www.activelivingresearch.org/files/ALR_Brief_ActiveTransport.pdf
“Recommendations For Advancing Opportunities to Increase Physical Activity in Racial/Ethnic Minority Communities” (2009)
• This article suggests that public policies, informed by research, that support population-level approaches to increase physical activity, is needed to increase physical activity opportunities to racial/ethnic minority communities.
• The authors suggest that by creating better schools in low income neighborhoods, children would be more likely to live within walking distance to school and choose active transportation to and from school.
• Building infrastructure that includes sidewalks, walking trails, bicycle lanes, and increased availability of reliable public transportation in racial/ethnic minorities is a strategy to support and allow engaging in active forms of transportation and physical activity.
Whitt-Glover, Melicia C., Crespo, Carlos J. and Joe, Jennie. “Recommendations for advancing opportunities to increase physical activity in racial/ethnic minority communities.” Preventive Medicine. 49.4 (2009): 292-293.
“Creating Physical Activity-Promoting Community Environments: Time for a Breakthrough” (2009)
• This article highlights Safe Routes to School as a promising strategy for increasing youth physical activity and improving health equity.
• Joint use agreements to unlock school playgrounds after school and on weekends is another highlighted approach to promote physical activity, especially in poor communities and communities without access to other recreation facilities.
• Finally, this article reminds readers that The Recovery Act includes more than $45.5 billion to employ out of work Americans to improve public transit systems, making our communities more walkable and bikable and investing in projects that reduce reliance on automobiles – the source of close to 30% of total greenhouse gas emissions.
Solomon, Loel S., Standish, Marion B., and Orleans, C. Tracy. “Creating Physical Activity-Promoting Community Environments: Time for a breakthrough.” Preventive Medicine. 49.4 (2009): 334-335.
“Identifying Factors Affecting the Number of Students Walking or Biking to School” (2009)
• This study investigates the characteristics of student travel behaviors before the implementation of SRTS program and identifies the influential factors affecting the number of children to walk or bike to school.
• Parents reported the following as the five primary factors affecting children’s walking or biking:
- distance (67.0%)
- traffic speed along route (53.7%)
- traffic amount along route (51.3%)
- violence or crime (42.1%)
- intersection safety (38.2%)
• Parents reported the following as the five primary factors that would change their decisions and allow their children to walk or bike to school:
- distance (25.5%)
- safety of intersections and crossings (22.0%)
- weather or climate (21.9%)
- presence of an adult cowalker (17.5%)
- convenience of driving (15.0%)
• Researchers suggest that distance between the rankings reveal a variance between people’s perceptions and reactions.
• Subjective opinions were also considered in this study demonstrating that most students and parents held positive attitudes toward students walking or biking to school:
- Forty percent of students consider walking or biking to school “fun” or “very fun” and less than 10 percent of students consider it “boring or “very boring”
- 57.2 percent of students consider it “healthy” or “very healthy” to walk or bike to school
- 78.8 percent of students have asked for permission to walk or bike to school
- Only 4.1 percent of students believed their schools discourage or strongly discourage students to walk or bike to school
- 32.9 percent of parents will allow their children to walk or bike alone at different grades.
Zhou, Huaguo, Zhao, Jiguang, Hsu, Peter, and Rouse, Jeanette. “Identifying Factors Affecting the Number of Students Walking or Biking to School.” Institute of Transportation Engineers Journal. 79.10 (2009).
“Recommended Community Strategies and Measurements to Prevent Obesity in the United States” (2009)
• The CDC initiated the Common Community Measures for Obesity Prevention Project (the Measures Project) to identify and recommend a set of obesity prevention strategies and corresponding suggested measurements that local governments and communities can use to plan, implement, and monitor initiatives to prevent obesity.
• Strategies 17-23 suggest community improvements that are addressed by Safe Routes to School. These recommendations suggest that communities should:
- enhance infrastructure supporting bicycling
- enhance infrastructure supporting walking
- support locating schools within easy walking distance of residential areas
- improve access to public transportation
- zone for mixed-land use development
- enhance personal safety in areas where persons are or could be physically active
- enhance traffic safety where persons are or could be physically active
Khan, Laura Kettel, Sobush, Kathleen, Keener, Dana, Goodman, Kenneth, Lowry, Amy, Kazietek, Jakub, and Zaro, Susan. “Recommended Community Strategies and Measurements to Prevent Obesity in the United States.” Center for Disease Control. (2009): 58(RR07); 1-26.
"Environmental Correlates of Children’s Active Transportation: A Systematic Literature Review” (2009)
• This is a systematic review of 38 articles that investigate the environmental (physical, economic, socio-cultural and political) correlates of active transportation (AT) among young people aged 5-18 years
• Lower rates of active transport were correlated with greater distance, increasing household income and increasing car ownership
• Non-white ethnic background is positively associated with active transport.
• Accessibility to recreational facilities and walk or bike paths are possibly associated with higher rates of active transport
• Researchers highlight the complexity of variables promoting or inhibiting children’s active transport and suggest areas for future research
Pont, Karina, Ziviani, Jenny, Wadley, David, Bennett, Sally and Abbott, Rebecca. “Environmental Correlates of Children’s Active Transportation: A Systematic Literature Review”. Health and Place. 15 (2009) 849-862.
“Child Transport Practices and Perceived Barriers in Active Commuting to School” (2009)
• This study examines 496 parental questionnaires to evaluate the transport practices of school children and perceived factors that influenced parental decisions regarding their child’s use of active transport to commute to school
• Only 1/3 of the children report using active transport to and from school
• Commuting distance is significantly associated with increased odds of active transport
• Other factors that reportedly influence parental decisions regarding their child’s active transport to school are: age, provision of safe walking paths, adult supervision, commuting distance, and child’s fitness level
Yeung, Jennifer, Wearing, Scott, and Hills, Andrew P. “Child Transport Practices and Perceived Barriers in Active Commuting to School”. Transportation Research Part A. 42 (2008) 895-900.
“Measuring the Built Environment for Physical Activity: State of the Science” (2009)
• This study addressed the importance of the development of high-quality measures to understand the impact of the built environment on physical activity
• Three categories of the built environment data are critically assessed:
1. perceived measures obtained by telephone interview or self-administered questionnaires
2. observational measures obtained using systematic observational methods (audits)
3. archival data sets hat are often layered and analyzed with GIS
• This is the first substantial literature on measurement of the built environment for physical activity, a topic that is of importance to both researchers and practitioners
• Future developments in measuring the built environment and physical activity should continually improve, ensuring relevance for diverse population groups, and integrating built-environment measures into public health surveillance and planning systems
Brownson, Ross C., Hoehner, Christine M., Day, Kristen, Forsyth, Ann, and Sallis, James F. “Measuring the Built environment for Physical Activity: State of the Science”. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 36.4 (2009) S99-S123.
“The Built Environment: Designing Communities to Promote Physical Activity in Children” (2009)
• This article discusses how the built environment of a community affects children’s opportunities for physical activity
• Walking to school is identified as the most universal opportunity for incidental physical activity, which are activities for which exercise is not the primary goal
• The TAAG study, as noted in this policy report, provided evidence that every mile that a girl lived farther from school translated to significantly fewer minutes of metabolic activity per week
• The policy report identifies 3 recommendations for pediatricians; ask patients about incidental physical activity opportunities in their community, ask patients to advocate for environmental improvements that will allow their children to walk to school, and advocate for opportunities that will increase physical activity for children
• The policy report identifies 5 recommendations for government; pass and promote laws that promote active living, create and maintain green spaces, promote legislation and fund programs that create active commuting opportunities, fund research on the built environment and physical activity, and serve as a model for the community by siting buildings in locations that promote activity living.
Tester, June M. and the Committee on Environmental Health. “The Built Environment: Designing Communities to Promote Physical Activity in Children.” Pediatrics. 123.6 (2009) 1591-1598.
“Factors Associated with Federal Transportation Funding for Local Pedestrian and Bicycle Programming and Facilities” (2009)
• This study examines bicycle- and pedestrian-related investments authorized by federal transportation legislation in 3,140 counties in the United States by region, population size and urbanization, social and economic characteristics, and indicators of travel-related walking and bicycling.
• From 1992 to 2004, states and counties implemented 10,012 bicycle- and pedestrian-related projects representing $3.17 billion in federal expenditures.
• Disparities in implementation and system-building outcomes were identified according to population size and location.
• Counties characterized by persistent poverty and low educational status were less likely to implement projects.
• Improved data tracking, more explicit linkages between transportation projects and public health, and improved planning assistance to underserved communities are the key policy recommendations for improving public health outcomes drawn from this research.
Cradock, Angie L., Troped, Philip J., Fields, Billy, Melly, Steven J., Simms, Shannon V., Gimmler, Franz and Fowler, Marianne. “Factors Associated with Federal Transportation Funding for Local Pedestrian and Bicycle Programming and Facilities.” Journal of Public Health Policy. 30 (2009): S38-S72.
“Correlates of Walking to School and Implications for Public Policies: Survey Results from Parents of Elementary School Children in Austin, Texas” (2009)
• This study identifies correlations between walking behaviors to school and relevant policy implications.
• Parents’ and children’s positive attitude, regular walking behavior, and supportive peer influences were positively correlated with walking to school.
• Distance and safety concerns were strongly negatively correlated with walking to school, as well as the presence of highways/freeways, convenience stores, office buildings, and bus stops en route.
• The findings of this study suggest that society should give high priority to lower socioeconomic status populations and to multi-agency policy interventions that facilitate environmental changes, safety improvements, and educational programs targeting both parents and children.
Zhu, Xuemei and Lee, Chanam. “Correlates of Walking to School and Implications for Public Policies: Survey Results from Parents of Elementary School Children in Austin, Texas.” Journal of Public Health Policy. 30 (2000): S177-S202.
“Bicycling for Transportation and Health: The Role of Infrastructure” (2009)
• This paper provides insight on whether bicycling for everyday travel can help US adults meet the recommended levels of physical activity and what role public infrastructure may play in encouraging this activity.
• 60% of the participants rode for more than 150 minutes per week during the study and nearly all of the bicycling was for utilitarian purposes, not exercise.
• A disproportionate share of the bicycling occurred on streets with bicycle lanes, separate paths, or bicycle boulevards.
• The study suggests that well-connected neighborhood streets and a network of bicycle-specific infrastructure encourages more bicycling among adults.
Dill, Jennifer. “Bicycling for Transportation and Health: The Role of Infrastructure”. Journal of Public Health Policy. 30 (2009): S95–S110.
“Walking and Cycling to School: Predictors of Increases Among Children and Adolescents” (2009)
• This study examines predictors of active commuting to school among children and adolescents’ over a 2-year period.
• Results report that children whose parents know many people in the neighborhood are more likely to increase their active commuting compared with other children.
• Parents of adolescents who perceived there to be insufficient traffic lights and pedestrian crossings in their neighborhood were less likely to increase their active commuting.
• This study implies that social factors as well as physical environmental characteristics are the most important predictors of active commuting among children and adolescents.
Hume, Clare, Timperio, Anna, Salmon, Jo, Carver, Alison, Giles-Cortie, Billie and Crawford, David. “Walking and Cycling to School: Predictors of Increases Among Children and Adolescents.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 36.3 (2009): 195-200.
“Children Living Near Green Spaces Are More Active” (2009)
• In this study of children aged 8-10, for every additional park located within a half-mile of their home, girls are twice as likely to walk to school.
• Boys are 60 percent more likely to walk in leisure time when a park is located within a half-mile of their home.
• This study supports a statement from the American Heart Association made in June of 2008 stating, “walkable” neighborhoods, with adequate sidewalks and areas for physical activity, can play an important role in combating the rise in obesity rates by making it easier to get daily exercise.
Lamber, Marie, Kestens, Yan, Gauvin, Lise, Van Hulst, Andraea and Danie, Mark. “Children Living Near Green Spaces are More Active.” American Heart Association, 2009.
“The Influence of the Physical Environment and Sociodemographic Characteristics on Children’s Mode of Travel to and From School” (2009)
• This study examines the socio-demographic and environmental influences on a child’s mode of travel between home and school in a mid-sized Canadian city.
• Results show that 62% of students living within 1.6 km of their school used active travel to get to school in the morning, with 95% of the group walking.
• Active travel is nearly 10% higher on the way home from school.
• Analysis reveals that the distance between home and school is the most important factor in determining whether a child used active transport to get to school.
• Socio-demographic analysis reveals that boys are 1.5 more times more likely to use active transport than are girls.
• The findings of this study support the impact that school siting has on active travel to and from school.
Larsen, Kristian, Gilliland, Jason, Hess, Paul, Tucker, Patrick, Irwin, Jennifer and He, Meizi. “The Influence of the Physical Environment and Sociodemographic Characteristics on Children’s Mode of Travel to and From School.” American Public Health Association. 99.3 (2009): 520-526.
“Changes in the Percentage of Students Who Walk or Bike to School – United States, 1969 and 2001” (2008)
• Data from the 1969 and 2001 National Household Transportation Survey report that a smaller percentage of students lived within 1 mile of school in 2001 than in 1969.
• The percentage of students who walked or biked any distance decreased from 42.0% to 16.2%.
• Nearly half of students used more than 1 travel mode or went to an additional destination en route between home and school in 2001.
• Implications from this study indicate that a multidisciplinary effort is needed to increase the percentage of students who walk or bike to school, as well as decrease the distances that students travel.
Ham, Sandra A., Martin, Sarah, and Kohl III, Harold W. “Changes in the Percentage of Students Who Walk or Bike to School – United States, 1969 and 2001.” Journal of Physical Activity and Health. 5.2 (2008): 205-215
“Why Don’t More Children Walk to School?” (2008)
• Only 14% of students aged 5-14 years usually walk to school.
• The most frequently reported barrier to walking to school is distance.
• For students that live within 1 mile of school, implementation of effective pedestrian interventions can reduce the traffic dangers that prevent children from walking to school.
Beck, Laurie F. and Greenspan, Arlene I. “Why Don’t More Children Walk to School?” Journal of Safety Research. 39.5 (2008): 449-52.
“The Built Environment, Climate Change, and Health Opportunities for Co-Benefits” (2008)
• Incorporating a health promotion approach in the design and development of the built environment can ease climate change and promote healthier living.
Dannenberg, Andrew L., Morrow Almeida, Heather, Vindigni, Stephen M. and Younger,
Margalit. "The Built Environment, Climate Change, and Health Opportunities for Co-Benefits." American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 35.5 (2008): 517-526.
“Children’s Active Commuting to School: Current Knowledge and Future Directions” (2008)
• This article summarizes research on predictors and health consequences of active commuting to school and evaluates programs specific to children’s walking and bicycling to school, including Safe Routes to School.
• Research demonstrates that children who walk or bicycle to school have higher daily levels of physical activity and better cardiovascular fitness than do children who do not actively commute to school.
• A review of the literature identifies a wide range of predictors of children’s active commuting behaviors, including demographic factors, individual and family factors, school factors (including the immediate area surrounding schools), and social and physical environmental factors.
• Safe Routes to School and the Walking School Bus are two public health efforts that promote walking and bicycling to school.
• Evidence suggests that these activities are viewed positively by key stakeholders and have positive effects on children’s active commuting to school.
Davison, Kirsten K., Werder, Jessica L. and Lawson, Catherine T. “Children’s Active Commuting to School: Current Knowledge and Future Directions.” Preventing Chronic Disease. 5.3 (2008): A100.
“Investment in Safe Routes to School Projects: Public Health Benefits for the Larger Community” (2008)
• This study estimates of the amount of land area and population in the United States that could be affected by Safe Routes to School programs, and examines the types of locations where such improvements are likely to affect the greatest number of people and the improvements it could have on the larger community.
• Communities with limited funds may be able to improve their overall walkability by using federal Safe Routes to School funding to improve walking and cycling routes to schools.
Watson, Margaret and Dannenberg, Andrew. “Investment in Safe Routes to School Projects: Public Health Benefits for the Larger Community.” Preventing Chronic Disease. 5.3 (2008).
“Estimating the Number of Children Who Can Walk to School” (2007)
http://www.ajpm-online.net/article/S0749-3797(07)00350-9/abstract
or
http://www.saferoutespartnership.org/media/file/AmericanJournalStudy.pdf
• National estimates suggest that 14%-19% of children walk to school while state and local estimates suggest that 4% to 20% of children walk to school.
• The most commonly reported reason by parents why children do not walk to school is distance (62%).
• This study estimates the percentage of children in Georgia who live within a safe and reasonable walking distance from school.
• Results report that the estimated percentage of potential walkers is well below 50% for all but the 1-mile radius for early and late elementary school students.
• This study suggests that increasing the percentage of students who walk will require educational efforts and changes to the built environment.
Falb, Matthew D., Kanny, Dafna, Powell, Kenneth E., and Giarrusso, Anthony J. “Estimating the Number of Children Who Can Walk to School.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 33.4 (2007): 269-275.
“Many Pathways from Land Use to Health” (2006)
• This article examines single-use, low-density land use patterns and reports that a 5% increase in neighborhood walkability is associated with:
o 32.1% more minutes devoted to physically active travel
o About one-quarter point lower BMI (0.228)
o 6.5% fewer vehicle miles traveled (VMT) per capita
o 5.6% fewer grams of Nitrogen Dioxide per capita
o 5.5% fewer grams of volatile organic compound (VOC) emitted per capita
Frank, Lawrence D., Sallis, James F., Conway, Terry L., Chapman, James E., Saelens, Brian E. and Bachman, William. “Many Pathways from Land Use to Health. Associations between Neighborhood Walkability and Active Transportation, Body Mass Index, and Air Quality.” Journal of the American Planning Association. 72.1 (2006): 75-87.
“California’s Safe Routes to School Program: Impacts on Walking, Bicycling, and Pedestrian Safety” (2005)
• This study evaluates and assesses 10 Safe Routes to School traffic improvement projects in terms of expected outcomes for pedestrian and bicycle safety as well as for amount of walking.
• Upon the completion of thorough data collection and analysis, this study recommends considering the following when planning and funding projects:
o Projects that fill sidewalk gaps near schools with moderate to high amounts of walking should be supported.
o Supported projects should include traffic control devices to regulate yielding at intersections where large volumes of vehicle and pedestrian traffic intersect.
o Implementation of Safe Routes to School may be more effective if construction is coupled with education campaigns to encourage student to walk or bicycle to school.
o Schools should be encouraged to leverage funds for traffic improvements by providing education that encourages students to walk and bicycle safely to and from school.
Boarnet, Marlon G., Day, Kristen, Anderson, Craig L., McMillan, Tracy and Alfonso, Mariela. “California’s Safe Routes to School Program: Impacts on Walking, Bicycling, and Pedestrian Safety.” Journal of the American Planning Association. 71.12 (2005): 301-317.
“Evaluation of the California Safe Routes to School Legislation: Urban Form Changes and Children’s Active Transportation to School” (2005)
• This study evaluates the California Safe Routes to School legislation which provides funds for construction projects such as sidewalks, traffic lights, pedestrian crossing improvements, and bicycle paths.
• Results show that children who pass completed Safe Routes to School projects are more likely to show increases in walking or bicycle travel than are children who do not pass by projects (15% vs. 4%), supporting the effectiveness of Safe Routes to School construction projects in increasing walking or bicycling to school for children who pass these projects on their way to school.
Boarnet, Marlon G., Anderson, Craig L., Day, Kristen, McMillan, Tracy and Alfonzo, Mariela. “Evaluation of the California Safe Routes to School Legislation: Urban Form Changes and Children’s Active Transportation to School.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 28.2.2 (2005): 134-140.
“Can the Physical Environment Determine Physical Activity Levels?” (2005)
• This article reviews what is known about the built environment and its relationship to physical activity.
• Research suggests that there is a relatively strong association between metropolitan development patterns and use of active travel modes such as walking and transit.
• Further relationships between the built environment and physical activity require more investigation.
Ewing, Reid. “Can the Physical Environment Determine Physical Activity Levels?” Exercise Sport Science Review. 33.2 (2005): 69-75.
“Multiple Impacts of the Built Environment on Public Health: Walkable Places and the Exposure to Air Pollution” (2005)
• This article focuses on the relationship between the built environment, travel behavior, and public health outcomes.
Frank, Lawrence D. and Engelke, Peter. “Multiple Impacts of the Built Environment on Public Health: Walkable Places and the Exposure to Air Pollution.” International Regional Science Review. 28(2) (2005): 193-216.
“Does the Built Environment Influence Physical Activity?” (2005)
• This is a thorough report on the relationship between the built environment and physical activity that reviews physical activity and health, long term trends affecting physical activity levels, current research on the built environment and physical activity, as well as current knowledge gaps.
“Does the Built Environment Influence Physical Activity?” (2005) Transportation Research Board Special Report 282. Committee on Physical Activity, Health, Transportation and Land Use. Washington D.C.
“A Review of Evidence-Based Traffic Engineering Measures Designed to Reduce Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Crashes” (2003)
• This review uses the Transportation Research Information Services database to identify studies on engineering to reduce speed, separate pedestrians from vehicles, and increase visibility of pedestrians.
• Single-lane roundabouts, sidewalks, exclusive pedestrian signal phasing, pedestrian refuge islands, and increased intensity of roadway lighting yield the most effective increase in pedestrian safety.
• Results report that modifications of the built environment can substantially reduce the risk of pedestrian-vehicle crashes.
• More research is needed in the field of traffic engineering measures and effects on pedestrian safety.
Retting, Richard A., Ferguson, Susan A., and McCartt, Anne T. “A Review of Evidence-Based Traffic Engineering Measures Designed to Reduce Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Crashes.” American Journal of Public Health. 93.9 (2003):1456-1463.
“Travel and Environmental Implications of School Siting" (2003)
• School proximity to students matters. Students with shorter walk and bike times to school are more likely to walk or bike.
• The built environment influences travel choices. Students traveling through pedestrian-friendly environments are more likely to walk or bike.
"Travel and Environmental Implications of School Siting." October 2003. United States Environmental Protection Agency.
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